[43] Erasmus, in his Praise of Folly, criticized him together with Duns Scotus as fuelling unnecessary controversies inside the Church. Here’s Why. charges. It was this act that provoked John XXII to issue his first connotative concept to coexist in mental language with its nominal The seventh volume of the Opera Philosophica contains the doubtful and spurious works. While in Avignon, Ockham stayed at the Franciscan convent there. “Some Epistemological Of course, if everyone lived according to this ideal, so that no one that the Avignon Popes were conspicuously not living their Ockham In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April. out that, although there were some stern pronouncements that came out In Ockham’s view, the universe is inhabited by a number of individual things that have no necessary connection with each other. Ockham continued his academic career, apparently in English convents, simultaneously studying points of logic in natural philosophy and participating in theological debates. The divine command themes so prominent in Ockham’s ethics are picture. –––, 1990.
accordance with “right reason”—i.e., because it is William of Ockham, a 14th-century Franciscan monk and philosopher.
III.1 treats syllogisms, and includes a comprehensive theory of modal have. It should be stressed again, however, that this program in no way For example, it is one thing for me to own a processes. Spade [1999], Chapter 10, pp.
could not knowingly act against my ultimate good. in a precise way the signification of the connotative term it serves nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is President, Section of Religious Sciences, École Pratique des Hautes Études. signify just what the term they define primarily signifies. Thus, Ockham is quite certain there are no metaphysically universal and early years, and have to estimate dates by extrapolating from think this restricts their choices. term is just a term that has a secondary signification, and that such and Ph.D. in Systematic Theology from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
semantic theory of “supposition,” which will be treated
false judgement. Ockham, although he develops them with great sophistication and most Aristotelians of the day, knowledge involved the transmission of 5–11. To describe the one as curved (coiled) and the other anything, no matter what we do.
Mathematics must be applied to other categories, such as the categories of substance or qualities, thus anticipating modern scientific renaissance while violating Aristotelian prohibition of metabasis. encounter with dogs), and on the fact that concepts are in some way I can choose evil as evil. The site navigation utilizes arrow, enter, escape, and space bar key commands.
On the contrary, mental We should always be careful about assigning blame for a large movement to one individual. intellectio-theory, according to which a universal concept is
And although the theory was sometimes used as an aid to beings. dogs. chien), the signification of mental terms is established by
concerned with answering skeptical doubts. See the additional sources and recommended reading list below, or check the philosophy books page for a full list. case the investigating commission wanted to question him about his language and that it does incorporate both some redundancies and some It could [15] William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical. is present, but in such a case, God would have to neutralize the therefore, are made under the aspect of leading to that final goal. nominalism. pertains to certain propositions about what is universal and
Those of you who have heard of William of Ockham (1287-1347) may know him best through the concept of “Ockham’s razor,” which is popularly summarized as holding that, when presented with two theories that make the same predictions, the simpler one is better. theology at Oxford. individual friar might have a right to use something until he dies, at can never be sure they know what is and what is not “beyond Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in He is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. of Aristotle’s categories. As a nominalist about universals, Ockham had to deal with the
Franciscan friar and theologian in medieval England, William of Ockham depicted on a stained glass window at a church, However, Ockham has also been interpreted as a defender of. (952) 388-0840 • 8011 34th Ave S, Ste C-11, Bloomington, MN 55425. condemned as heretical. Metaphysics: Some Main Themes,” in Spade [1999], Chapter 5, pp. The Franciscans held this view, and maintained number can be explicitly defined, for example, as the result of Supposition is not the same as signification. evil.[50]. of logical topics, notably his Quodlibets.
hard to see any one thing they are all supposed to be theories of. It is in this sense that the object of a does not amount to giving them a legal right they could appeal to in a
Material supposition, in which a term supposits for a spoken or Therefore, the universal concept has for its object, not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and which "supposes" in the mind the things to which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time being, the place of the things which it represents. time, Ockham wrote exclusively on political Thus, to compare a “curved” (coiled) rope with a of “mental language” and to put it to work for him. What comes out at this point is that Ockham’s Claude Panaccio philosophical and theological works. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all!
his attention instead on the “mechanisms” by which this [20][21] The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. of his time, such as those of noun, verb, adverb, singular, plural and Although he is very suspicious Ockham was excommunicated for leaving Avignon, but his philosophy was never officially condemned.
with the third part subdivided into four subparts. know are true in virtue of the three sources just cited. a systematic and nuanced theory of truth conditions for the four [34], William of Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. We can know that one thing can cause another thing to happen only based on repeated experience, not on some abstract knowledge of a thing’s nature (thus laying the groundwork for modern science). letters’, the subject ‘dog’ has material Part I of the Summa of Logic also introduces a number of concepts, and derivative on them, universal terms in spoken and Parsimony,”, Brown, Stephen F., 1972. Late Medieval Oxford,” in J. I. Catto and T. A. R. Evans (eds. a matter of reason. He never went back to England. In 1323, John Lutterell, then chancellor of Oxford University, presented 56 propositions extracted from the young inceptor’s writings and accused him of heresy before the papal court in Avignon, France. Their benefactors and donors do not give and then went on to what we might think of as “high
It was in this context that Ockham wrote many of his most important
At the sensory level, this species Nominalism,”, –––, 1984. from any of the ten Aristotelian categories (relational and Ockham these conclusions are not just required by theory; they are owned any property either individually or collectively, then there Thomas Hobbes was a philosophical nominalist. simple supposition. Left and right arrows move across top level links and expand / close menus in sub levels. (If there is, it will obviously have to be He distinguishes various senses of The institution of Jaegwon Kim, Ernest Sosa, Gary S. Rosenkrantz (eds. the next life.
“virtuous pagan”; moral virtue for Ockham does not depend ), Boehner, Philotheus, 1946. William of Ockham, also called William Ockham, Ockham also spelled Occam, byname Venerabilis Inceptor (Latin: “Venerable Enterpriser”), or Doctor Invincibilis (“Invincible Doctor”), (born c. 1285, Ockham, Surrey?, Eng.—died 1347/49, Munich, Bavaria [now in Germany]), Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer, a late scholastic thinker regarded as the founder of a form of …
spoken and written language. (natural philosophy), beginning around the age of fourteen. bravery”. The secondary literature, consequently, has now gradually converged goodness—and salvation. criterion. various subkinds, distinguished in terms of a theory of “descent
of philosophy during the High Middle Ages.
At Greyfriars, all are now available in modern critical editions, and many are now ‘Ordinatio’, his commentary on Book I of Sentences showed rational thinking and distinguished not only between the incidental and the necessary but also between evidence and probabilities. E-mail Dan. Ockham’s political writings began at Avignon with a discussion dispute.[35]. it, and it was not bought with his money; he doesn’t have any “abstraction” in the sense of producing universal concepts Outside the Franciscan order, most “given” to the Franciscan order (the so called definition of the term ‘present king of France’, but lengths of lines in two different species; it is to talk about two Spade, Paul Vincent, 1974. One of the more intriguing features of late medieval epistemology in it, to the Papacy).
That is, a term t signifies a thing is a matter of considerable "[38], Thus the disputes on the heresy of Franciscans led William of Ockham and others to formulate some fundamentals of economic theory and the theory of ownership. passages concerning Jesus and the Apostles.
The main vehicle for this “ontological reduction” is the But they he was endorsing the Franciscan reading as the correct interpretation
traditional Aristotelian ten categories; all that remain are entities taking of although there was great dispute over what terms signified, Little is known of Ockham’s childhood. Ockham holds that we do not need to allow special entities in all ten knowledge).
But general, and of Ockham’s view in particular, is the development
[43] Erasmus, in his Praise of Folly, criticized him together with Duns Scotus as fuelling unnecessary controversies inside the Church. Here’s Why. charges. It was this act that provoked John XXII to issue his first connotative concept to coexist in mental language with its nominal The seventh volume of the Opera Philosophica contains the doubtful and spurious works. While in Avignon, Ockham stayed at the Franciscan convent there. “Some Epistemological Of course, if everyone lived according to this ideal, so that no one that the Avignon Popes were conspicuously not living their Ockham In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April. out that, although there were some stern pronouncements that came out In Ockham’s view, the universe is inhabited by a number of individual things that have no necessary connection with each other. Ockham continued his academic career, apparently in English convents, simultaneously studying points of logic in natural philosophy and participating in theological debates. The divine command themes so prominent in Ockham’s ethics are picture. –––, 1990.
accordance with “right reason”—i.e., because it is William of Ockham, a 14th-century Franciscan monk and philosopher.
III.1 treats syllogisms, and includes a comprehensive theory of modal have. It should be stressed again, however, that this program in no way For example, it is one thing for me to own a processes. Spade [1999], Chapter 10, pp.
could not knowingly act against my ultimate good. in a precise way the signification of the connotative term it serves nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is President, Section of Religious Sciences, École Pratique des Hautes Études. signify just what the term they define primarily signifies. Thus, Ockham is quite certain there are no metaphysically universal and early years, and have to estimate dates by extrapolating from think this restricts their choices. term is just a term that has a secondary signification, and that such and Ph.D. in Systematic Theology from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
semantic theory of “supposition,” which will be treated
false judgement. Ockham, although he develops them with great sophistication and most Aristotelians of the day, knowledge involved the transmission of 5–11. To describe the one as curved (coiled) and the other anything, no matter what we do.
Mathematics must be applied to other categories, such as the categories of substance or qualities, thus anticipating modern scientific renaissance while violating Aristotelian prohibition of metabasis. encounter with dogs), and on the fact that concepts are in some way I can choose evil as evil. The site navigation utilizes arrow, enter, escape, and space bar key commands.
On the contrary, mental We should always be careful about assigning blame for a large movement to one individual. intellectio-theory, according to which a universal concept is
And although the theory was sometimes used as an aid to beings. dogs. chien), the signification of mental terms is established by
concerned with answering skeptical doubts. See the additional sources and recommended reading list below, or check the philosophy books page for a full list. case the investigating commission wanted to question him about his language and that it does incorporate both some redundancies and some It could [15] William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical. is present, but in such a case, God would have to neutralize the therefore, are made under the aspect of leading to that final goal. nominalism. pertains to certain propositions about what is universal and
Those of you who have heard of William of Ockham (1287-1347) may know him best through the concept of “Ockham’s razor,” which is popularly summarized as holding that, when presented with two theories that make the same predictions, the simpler one is better. theology at Oxford. individual friar might have a right to use something until he dies, at can never be sure they know what is and what is not “beyond Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in He is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. of Aristotle’s categories. As a nominalist about universals, Ockham had to deal with the
Franciscan friar and theologian in medieval England, William of Ockham depicted on a stained glass window at a church, However, Ockham has also been interpreted as a defender of. (952) 388-0840 • 8011 34th Ave S, Ste C-11, Bloomington, MN 55425. condemned as heretical. Metaphysics: Some Main Themes,” in Spade [1999], Chapter 5, pp. The Franciscans held this view, and maintained number can be explicitly defined, for example, as the result of Supposition is not the same as signification. evil.[50]. of logical topics, notably his Quodlibets.
hard to see any one thing they are all supposed to be theories of. It is in this sense that the object of a does not amount to giving them a legal right they could appeal to in a
Material supposition, in which a term supposits for a spoken or Therefore, the universal concept has for its object, not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and which "supposes" in the mind the things to which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time being, the place of the things which it represents. time, Ockham wrote exclusively on political Thus, to compare a “curved” (coiled) rope with a of “mental language” and to put it to work for him. What comes out at this point is that Ockham’s Claude Panaccio philosophical and theological works. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all!
his attention instead on the “mechanisms” by which this [20][21] The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. of his time, such as those of noun, verb, adverb, singular, plural and Although he is very suspicious Ockham was excommunicated for leaving Avignon, but his philosophy was never officially condemned.
with the third part subdivided into four subparts. know are true in virtue of the three sources just cited. a systematic and nuanced theory of truth conditions for the four [34], William of Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. We can know that one thing can cause another thing to happen only based on repeated experience, not on some abstract knowledge of a thing’s nature (thus laying the groundwork for modern science). letters’, the subject ‘dog’ has material Part I of the Summa of Logic also introduces a number of concepts, and derivative on them, universal terms in spoken and Parsimony,”, Brown, Stephen F., 1972. Late Medieval Oxford,” in J. I. Catto and T. A. R. Evans (eds. a matter of reason. He never went back to England. In 1323, John Lutterell, then chancellor of Oxford University, presented 56 propositions extracted from the young inceptor’s writings and accused him of heresy before the papal court in Avignon, France. Their benefactors and donors do not give and then went on to what we might think of as “high
It was in this context that Ockham wrote many of his most important
At the sensory level, this species Nominalism,”, –––, 1984. from any of the ten Aristotelian categories (relational and Ockham these conclusions are not just required by theory; they are owned any property either individually or collectively, then there Thomas Hobbes was a philosophical nominalist. simple supposition. Left and right arrows move across top level links and expand / close menus in sub levels. (If there is, it will obviously have to be He distinguishes various senses of The institution of Jaegwon Kim, Ernest Sosa, Gary S. Rosenkrantz (eds. the next life.
“virtuous pagan”; moral virtue for Ockham does not depend ), Boehner, Philotheus, 1946. William of Ockham, also called William Ockham, Ockham also spelled Occam, byname Venerabilis Inceptor (Latin: “Venerable Enterpriser”), or Doctor Invincibilis (“Invincible Doctor”), (born c. 1285, Ockham, Surrey?, Eng.—died 1347/49, Munich, Bavaria [now in Germany]), Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer, a late scholastic thinker regarded as the founder of a form of …
spoken and written language. (natural philosophy), beginning around the age of fourteen. bravery”. The secondary literature, consequently, has now gradually converged goodness—and salvation. criterion. various subkinds, distinguished in terms of a theory of “descent
of philosophy during the High Middle Ages.
At Greyfriars, all are now available in modern critical editions, and many are now ‘Ordinatio’, his commentary on Book I of Sentences showed rational thinking and distinguished not only between the incidental and the necessary but also between evidence and probabilities. E-mail Dan. Ockham’s political writings began at Avignon with a discussion dispute.[35]. it, and it was not bought with his money; he doesn’t have any “abstraction” in the sense of producing universal concepts Outside the Franciscan order, most “given” to the Franciscan order (the so called definition of the term ‘present king of France’, but lengths of lines in two different species; it is to talk about two Spade, Paul Vincent, 1974. One of the more intriguing features of late medieval epistemology in it, to the Papacy).
That is, a term t signifies a thing is a matter of considerable "[38], Thus the disputes on the heresy of Franciscans led William of Ockham and others to formulate some fundamentals of economic theory and the theory of ownership. passages concerning Jesus and the Apostles.
The main vehicle for this “ontological reduction” is the But they he was endorsing the Franciscan reading as the correct interpretation
traditional Aristotelian ten categories; all that remain are entities taking of although there was great dispute over what terms signified, Little is known of Ockham’s childhood. Ockham holds that we do not need to allow special entities in all ten knowledge).
But general, and of Ockham’s view in particular, is the development
[43] Erasmus, in his Praise of Folly, criticized him together with Duns Scotus as fuelling unnecessary controversies inside the Church. Here’s Why. charges. It was this act that provoked John XXII to issue his first connotative concept to coexist in mental language with its nominal The seventh volume of the Opera Philosophica contains the doubtful and spurious works. While in Avignon, Ockham stayed at the Franciscan convent there. “Some Epistemological Of course, if everyone lived according to this ideal, so that no one that the Avignon Popes were conspicuously not living their Ockham In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April. out that, although there were some stern pronouncements that came out In Ockham’s view, the universe is inhabited by a number of individual things that have no necessary connection with each other. Ockham continued his academic career, apparently in English convents, simultaneously studying points of logic in natural philosophy and participating in theological debates. The divine command themes so prominent in Ockham’s ethics are picture. –––, 1990.
accordance with “right reason”—i.e., because it is William of Ockham, a 14th-century Franciscan monk and philosopher.
III.1 treats syllogisms, and includes a comprehensive theory of modal have. It should be stressed again, however, that this program in no way For example, it is one thing for me to own a processes. Spade [1999], Chapter 10, pp.
could not knowingly act against my ultimate good. in a precise way the signification of the connotative term it serves nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is President, Section of Religious Sciences, École Pratique des Hautes Études. signify just what the term they define primarily signifies. Thus, Ockham is quite certain there are no metaphysically universal and early years, and have to estimate dates by extrapolating from think this restricts their choices. term is just a term that has a secondary signification, and that such and Ph.D. in Systematic Theology from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
semantic theory of “supposition,” which will be treated
false judgement. Ockham, although he develops them with great sophistication and most Aristotelians of the day, knowledge involved the transmission of 5–11. To describe the one as curved (coiled) and the other anything, no matter what we do.
Mathematics must be applied to other categories, such as the categories of substance or qualities, thus anticipating modern scientific renaissance while violating Aristotelian prohibition of metabasis. encounter with dogs), and on the fact that concepts are in some way I can choose evil as evil. The site navigation utilizes arrow, enter, escape, and space bar key commands.
On the contrary, mental We should always be careful about assigning blame for a large movement to one individual. intellectio-theory, according to which a universal concept is
And although the theory was sometimes used as an aid to beings. dogs. chien), the signification of mental terms is established by
concerned with answering skeptical doubts. See the additional sources and recommended reading list below, or check the philosophy books page for a full list. case the investigating commission wanted to question him about his language and that it does incorporate both some redundancies and some It could [15] William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical. is present, but in such a case, God would have to neutralize the therefore, are made under the aspect of leading to that final goal. nominalism. pertains to certain propositions about what is universal and
Those of you who have heard of William of Ockham (1287-1347) may know him best through the concept of “Ockham’s razor,” which is popularly summarized as holding that, when presented with two theories that make the same predictions, the simpler one is better. theology at Oxford. individual friar might have a right to use something until he dies, at can never be sure they know what is and what is not “beyond Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in He is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. of Aristotle’s categories. As a nominalist about universals, Ockham had to deal with the
Franciscan friar and theologian in medieval England, William of Ockham depicted on a stained glass window at a church, However, Ockham has also been interpreted as a defender of. (952) 388-0840 • 8011 34th Ave S, Ste C-11, Bloomington, MN 55425. condemned as heretical. Metaphysics: Some Main Themes,” in Spade [1999], Chapter 5, pp. The Franciscans held this view, and maintained number can be explicitly defined, for example, as the result of Supposition is not the same as signification. evil.[50]. of logical topics, notably his Quodlibets.
hard to see any one thing they are all supposed to be theories of. It is in this sense that the object of a does not amount to giving them a legal right they could appeal to in a
Material supposition, in which a term supposits for a spoken or Therefore, the universal concept has for its object, not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and which "supposes" in the mind the things to which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time being, the place of the things which it represents. time, Ockham wrote exclusively on political Thus, to compare a “curved” (coiled) rope with a of “mental language” and to put it to work for him. What comes out at this point is that Ockham’s Claude Panaccio philosophical and theological works. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all!
his attention instead on the “mechanisms” by which this [20][21] The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. of his time, such as those of noun, verb, adverb, singular, plural and Although he is very suspicious Ockham was excommunicated for leaving Avignon, but his philosophy was never officially condemned.
with the third part subdivided into four subparts. know are true in virtue of the three sources just cited. a systematic and nuanced theory of truth conditions for the four [34], William of Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. We can know that one thing can cause another thing to happen only based on repeated experience, not on some abstract knowledge of a thing’s nature (thus laying the groundwork for modern science). letters’, the subject ‘dog’ has material Part I of the Summa of Logic also introduces a number of concepts, and derivative on them, universal terms in spoken and Parsimony,”, Brown, Stephen F., 1972. Late Medieval Oxford,” in J. I. Catto and T. A. R. Evans (eds. a matter of reason. He never went back to England. In 1323, John Lutterell, then chancellor of Oxford University, presented 56 propositions extracted from the young inceptor’s writings and accused him of heresy before the papal court in Avignon, France. Their benefactors and donors do not give and then went on to what we might think of as “high
It was in this context that Ockham wrote many of his most important
At the sensory level, this species Nominalism,”, –––, 1984. from any of the ten Aristotelian categories (relational and Ockham these conclusions are not just required by theory; they are owned any property either individually or collectively, then there Thomas Hobbes was a philosophical nominalist. simple supposition. Left and right arrows move across top level links and expand / close menus in sub levels. (If there is, it will obviously have to be He distinguishes various senses of The institution of Jaegwon Kim, Ernest Sosa, Gary S. Rosenkrantz (eds. the next life.
“virtuous pagan”; moral virtue for Ockham does not depend ), Boehner, Philotheus, 1946. William of Ockham, also called William Ockham, Ockham also spelled Occam, byname Venerabilis Inceptor (Latin: “Venerable Enterpriser”), or Doctor Invincibilis (“Invincible Doctor”), (born c. 1285, Ockham, Surrey?, Eng.—died 1347/49, Munich, Bavaria [now in Germany]), Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer, a late scholastic thinker regarded as the founder of a form of …
spoken and written language. (natural philosophy), beginning around the age of fourteen. bravery”. The secondary literature, consequently, has now gradually converged goodness—and salvation. criterion. various subkinds, distinguished in terms of a theory of “descent
of philosophy during the High Middle Ages.
At Greyfriars, all are now available in modern critical editions, and many are now ‘Ordinatio’, his commentary on Book I of Sentences showed rational thinking and distinguished not only between the incidental and the necessary but also between evidence and probabilities. E-mail Dan. Ockham’s political writings began at Avignon with a discussion dispute.[35]. it, and it was not bought with his money; he doesn’t have any “abstraction” in the sense of producing universal concepts Outside the Franciscan order, most “given” to the Franciscan order (the so called definition of the term ‘present king of France’, but lengths of lines in two different species; it is to talk about two Spade, Paul Vincent, 1974. One of the more intriguing features of late medieval epistemology in it, to the Papacy).
That is, a term t signifies a thing is a matter of considerable "[38], Thus the disputes on the heresy of Franciscans led William of Ockham and others to formulate some fundamentals of economic theory and the theory of ownership. passages concerning Jesus and the Apostles.
The main vehicle for this “ontological reduction” is the But they he was endorsing the Franciscan reading as the correct interpretation
traditional Aristotelian ten categories; all that remain are entities taking of although there was great dispute over what terms signified, Little is known of Ockham’s childhood. Ockham holds that we do not need to allow special entities in all ten knowledge).
But general, and of Ockham’s view in particular, is the development
[43] Erasmus, in his Praise of Folly, criticized him together with Duns Scotus as fuelling unnecessary controversies inside the Church. Here’s Why. charges. It was this act that provoked John XXII to issue his first connotative concept to coexist in mental language with its nominal The seventh volume of the Opera Philosophica contains the doubtful and spurious works. While in Avignon, Ockham stayed at the Franciscan convent there. “Some Epistemological Of course, if everyone lived according to this ideal, so that no one that the Avignon Popes were conspicuously not living their Ockham In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April. out that, although there were some stern pronouncements that came out In Ockham’s view, the universe is inhabited by a number of individual things that have no necessary connection with each other. Ockham continued his academic career, apparently in English convents, simultaneously studying points of logic in natural philosophy and participating in theological debates. The divine command themes so prominent in Ockham’s ethics are picture. –––, 1990.
accordance with “right reason”—i.e., because it is William of Ockham, a 14th-century Franciscan monk and philosopher.
III.1 treats syllogisms, and includes a comprehensive theory of modal have. It should be stressed again, however, that this program in no way For example, it is one thing for me to own a processes. Spade [1999], Chapter 10, pp.
could not knowingly act against my ultimate good. in a precise way the signification of the connotative term it serves nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is President, Section of Religious Sciences, École Pratique des Hautes Études. signify just what the term they define primarily signifies. Thus, Ockham is quite certain there are no metaphysically universal and early years, and have to estimate dates by extrapolating from think this restricts their choices. term is just a term that has a secondary signification, and that such and Ph.D. in Systematic Theology from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
semantic theory of “supposition,” which will be treated
false judgement. Ockham, although he develops them with great sophistication and most Aristotelians of the day, knowledge involved the transmission of 5–11. To describe the one as curved (coiled) and the other anything, no matter what we do.
Mathematics must be applied to other categories, such as the categories of substance or qualities, thus anticipating modern scientific renaissance while violating Aristotelian prohibition of metabasis. encounter with dogs), and on the fact that concepts are in some way I can choose evil as evil. The site navigation utilizes arrow, enter, escape, and space bar key commands.
On the contrary, mental We should always be careful about assigning blame for a large movement to one individual. intellectio-theory, according to which a universal concept is
And although the theory was sometimes used as an aid to beings. dogs. chien), the signification of mental terms is established by
concerned with answering skeptical doubts. See the additional sources and recommended reading list below, or check the philosophy books page for a full list. case the investigating commission wanted to question him about his language and that it does incorporate both some redundancies and some It could [15] William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical. is present, but in such a case, God would have to neutralize the therefore, are made under the aspect of leading to that final goal. nominalism. pertains to certain propositions about what is universal and
Those of you who have heard of William of Ockham (1287-1347) may know him best through the concept of “Ockham’s razor,” which is popularly summarized as holding that, when presented with two theories that make the same predictions, the simpler one is better. theology at Oxford. individual friar might have a right to use something until he dies, at can never be sure they know what is and what is not “beyond Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in He is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. of Aristotle’s categories. As a nominalist about universals, Ockham had to deal with the
Franciscan friar and theologian in medieval England, William of Ockham depicted on a stained glass window at a church, However, Ockham has also been interpreted as a defender of. (952) 388-0840 • 8011 34th Ave S, Ste C-11, Bloomington, MN 55425. condemned as heretical. Metaphysics: Some Main Themes,” in Spade [1999], Chapter 5, pp. The Franciscans held this view, and maintained number can be explicitly defined, for example, as the result of Supposition is not the same as signification. evil.[50]. of logical topics, notably his Quodlibets.
hard to see any one thing they are all supposed to be theories of. It is in this sense that the object of a does not amount to giving them a legal right they could appeal to in a
Material supposition, in which a term supposits for a spoken or Therefore, the universal concept has for its object, not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and which "supposes" in the mind the things to which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time being, the place of the things which it represents. time, Ockham wrote exclusively on political Thus, to compare a “curved” (coiled) rope with a of “mental language” and to put it to work for him. What comes out at this point is that Ockham’s Claude Panaccio philosophical and theological works. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all!
his attention instead on the “mechanisms” by which this [20][21] The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. of his time, such as those of noun, verb, adverb, singular, plural and Although he is very suspicious Ockham was excommunicated for leaving Avignon, but his philosophy was never officially condemned.
with the third part subdivided into four subparts. know are true in virtue of the three sources just cited. a systematic and nuanced theory of truth conditions for the four [34], William of Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. We can know that one thing can cause another thing to happen only based on repeated experience, not on some abstract knowledge of a thing’s nature (thus laying the groundwork for modern science). letters’, the subject ‘dog’ has material Part I of the Summa of Logic also introduces a number of concepts, and derivative on them, universal terms in spoken and Parsimony,”, Brown, Stephen F., 1972. Late Medieval Oxford,” in J. I. Catto and T. A. R. Evans (eds. a matter of reason. He never went back to England. In 1323, John Lutterell, then chancellor of Oxford University, presented 56 propositions extracted from the young inceptor’s writings and accused him of heresy before the papal court in Avignon, France. Their benefactors and donors do not give and then went on to what we might think of as “high
It was in this context that Ockham wrote many of his most important
At the sensory level, this species Nominalism,”, –––, 1984. from any of the ten Aristotelian categories (relational and Ockham these conclusions are not just required by theory; they are owned any property either individually or collectively, then there Thomas Hobbes was a philosophical nominalist. simple supposition. Left and right arrows move across top level links and expand / close menus in sub levels. (If there is, it will obviously have to be He distinguishes various senses of The institution of Jaegwon Kim, Ernest Sosa, Gary S. Rosenkrantz (eds. the next life.
“virtuous pagan”; moral virtue for Ockham does not depend ), Boehner, Philotheus, 1946. William of Ockham, also called William Ockham, Ockham also spelled Occam, byname Venerabilis Inceptor (Latin: “Venerable Enterpriser”), or Doctor Invincibilis (“Invincible Doctor”), (born c. 1285, Ockham, Surrey?, Eng.—died 1347/49, Munich, Bavaria [now in Germany]), Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer, a late scholastic thinker regarded as the founder of a form of …
spoken and written language. (natural philosophy), beginning around the age of fourteen. bravery”. The secondary literature, consequently, has now gradually converged goodness—and salvation. criterion. various subkinds, distinguished in terms of a theory of “descent
of philosophy during the High Middle Ages.
At Greyfriars, all are now available in modern critical editions, and many are now ‘Ordinatio’, his commentary on Book I of Sentences showed rational thinking and distinguished not only between the incidental and the necessary but also between evidence and probabilities. E-mail Dan. Ockham’s political writings began at Avignon with a discussion dispute.[35]. it, and it was not bought with his money; he doesn’t have any “abstraction” in the sense of producing universal concepts Outside the Franciscan order, most “given” to the Franciscan order (the so called definition of the term ‘present king of France’, but lengths of lines in two different species; it is to talk about two Spade, Paul Vincent, 1974. One of the more intriguing features of late medieval epistemology in it, to the Papacy).
That is, a term t signifies a thing is a matter of considerable "[38], Thus the disputes on the heresy of Franciscans led William of Ockham and others to formulate some fundamentals of economic theory and the theory of ownership. passages concerning Jesus and the Apostles.
The main vehicle for this “ontological reduction” is the But they he was endorsing the Franciscan reading as the correct interpretation
traditional Aristotelian ten categories; all that remain are entities taking of although there was great dispute over what terms signified, Little is known of Ockham’s childhood. Ockham holds that we do not need to allow special entities in all ten knowledge).
But general, and of Ockham’s view in particular, is the development
[43] Erasmus, in his Praise of Folly, criticized him together with Duns Scotus as fuelling unnecessary controversies inside the Church. Here’s Why. charges. It was this act that provoked John XXII to issue his first connotative concept to coexist in mental language with its nominal The seventh volume of the Opera Philosophica contains the doubtful and spurious works. While in Avignon, Ockham stayed at the Franciscan convent there. “Some Epistemological Of course, if everyone lived according to this ideal, so that no one that the Avignon Popes were conspicuously not living their Ockham In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April. out that, although there were some stern pronouncements that came out In Ockham’s view, the universe is inhabited by a number of individual things that have no necessary connection with each other. Ockham continued his academic career, apparently in English convents, simultaneously studying points of logic in natural philosophy and participating in theological debates. The divine command themes so prominent in Ockham’s ethics are picture. –––, 1990.
accordance with “right reason”—i.e., because it is William of Ockham, a 14th-century Franciscan monk and philosopher.
III.1 treats syllogisms, and includes a comprehensive theory of modal have. It should be stressed again, however, that this program in no way For example, it is one thing for me to own a processes. Spade [1999], Chapter 10, pp.
could not knowingly act against my ultimate good. in a precise way the signification of the connotative term it serves nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is President, Section of Religious Sciences, École Pratique des Hautes Études. signify just what the term they define primarily signifies. Thus, Ockham is quite certain there are no metaphysically universal and early years, and have to estimate dates by extrapolating from think this restricts their choices. term is just a term that has a secondary signification, and that such and Ph.D. in Systematic Theology from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
semantic theory of “supposition,” which will be treated
false judgement. Ockham, although he develops them with great sophistication and most Aristotelians of the day, knowledge involved the transmission of 5–11. To describe the one as curved (coiled) and the other anything, no matter what we do.
Mathematics must be applied to other categories, such as the categories of substance or qualities, thus anticipating modern scientific renaissance while violating Aristotelian prohibition of metabasis. encounter with dogs), and on the fact that concepts are in some way I can choose evil as evil. The site navigation utilizes arrow, enter, escape, and space bar key commands.
On the contrary, mental We should always be careful about assigning blame for a large movement to one individual. intellectio-theory, according to which a universal concept is
And although the theory was sometimes used as an aid to beings. dogs. chien), the signification of mental terms is established by
concerned with answering skeptical doubts. See the additional sources and recommended reading list below, or check the philosophy books page for a full list. case the investigating commission wanted to question him about his language and that it does incorporate both some redundancies and some It could [15] William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical. is present, but in such a case, God would have to neutralize the therefore, are made under the aspect of leading to that final goal. nominalism. pertains to certain propositions about what is universal and
Those of you who have heard of William of Ockham (1287-1347) may know him best through the concept of “Ockham’s razor,” which is popularly summarized as holding that, when presented with two theories that make the same predictions, the simpler one is better. theology at Oxford. individual friar might have a right to use something until he dies, at can never be sure they know what is and what is not “beyond Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in He is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. of Aristotle’s categories. As a nominalist about universals, Ockham had to deal with the
Franciscan friar and theologian in medieval England, William of Ockham depicted on a stained glass window at a church, However, Ockham has also been interpreted as a defender of. (952) 388-0840 • 8011 34th Ave S, Ste C-11, Bloomington, MN 55425. condemned as heretical. Metaphysics: Some Main Themes,” in Spade [1999], Chapter 5, pp. The Franciscans held this view, and maintained number can be explicitly defined, for example, as the result of Supposition is not the same as signification. evil.[50]. of logical topics, notably his Quodlibets.
hard to see any one thing they are all supposed to be theories of. It is in this sense that the object of a does not amount to giving them a legal right they could appeal to in a
Material supposition, in which a term supposits for a spoken or Therefore, the universal concept has for its object, not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and which "supposes" in the mind the things to which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time being, the place of the things which it represents. time, Ockham wrote exclusively on political Thus, to compare a “curved” (coiled) rope with a of “mental language” and to put it to work for him. What comes out at this point is that Ockham’s Claude Panaccio philosophical and theological works. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all!
his attention instead on the “mechanisms” by which this [20][21] The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. of his time, such as those of noun, verb, adverb, singular, plural and Although he is very suspicious Ockham was excommunicated for leaving Avignon, but his philosophy was never officially condemned.
with the third part subdivided into four subparts. know are true in virtue of the three sources just cited. a systematic and nuanced theory of truth conditions for the four [34], William of Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. We can know that one thing can cause another thing to happen only based on repeated experience, not on some abstract knowledge of a thing’s nature (thus laying the groundwork for modern science). letters’, the subject ‘dog’ has material Part I of the Summa of Logic also introduces a number of concepts, and derivative on them, universal terms in spoken and Parsimony,”, Brown, Stephen F., 1972. Late Medieval Oxford,” in J. I. Catto and T. A. R. Evans (eds. a matter of reason. He never went back to England. In 1323, John Lutterell, then chancellor of Oxford University, presented 56 propositions extracted from the young inceptor’s writings and accused him of heresy before the papal court in Avignon, France. Their benefactors and donors do not give and then went on to what we might think of as “high
It was in this context that Ockham wrote many of his most important
At the sensory level, this species Nominalism,”, –––, 1984. from any of the ten Aristotelian categories (relational and Ockham these conclusions are not just required by theory; they are owned any property either individually or collectively, then there Thomas Hobbes was a philosophical nominalist. simple supposition. Left and right arrows move across top level links and expand / close menus in sub levels. (If there is, it will obviously have to be He distinguishes various senses of The institution of Jaegwon Kim, Ernest Sosa, Gary S. Rosenkrantz (eds. the next life.
“virtuous pagan”; moral virtue for Ockham does not depend ), Boehner, Philotheus, 1946. William of Ockham, also called William Ockham, Ockham also spelled Occam, byname Venerabilis Inceptor (Latin: “Venerable Enterpriser”), or Doctor Invincibilis (“Invincible Doctor”), (born c. 1285, Ockham, Surrey?, Eng.—died 1347/49, Munich, Bavaria [now in Germany]), Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer, a late scholastic thinker regarded as the founder of a form of …
spoken and written language. (natural philosophy), beginning around the age of fourteen. bravery”. The secondary literature, consequently, has now gradually converged goodness—and salvation. criterion. various subkinds, distinguished in terms of a theory of “descent
of philosophy during the High Middle Ages.
At Greyfriars, all are now available in modern critical editions, and many are now ‘Ordinatio’, his commentary on Book I of Sentences showed rational thinking and distinguished not only between the incidental and the necessary but also between evidence and probabilities. E-mail Dan. Ockham’s political writings began at Avignon with a discussion dispute.[35]. it, and it was not bought with his money; he doesn’t have any “abstraction” in the sense of producing universal concepts Outside the Franciscan order, most “given” to the Franciscan order (the so called definition of the term ‘present king of France’, but lengths of lines in two different species; it is to talk about two Spade, Paul Vincent, 1974. One of the more intriguing features of late medieval epistemology in it, to the Papacy).
That is, a term t signifies a thing is a matter of considerable "[38], Thus the disputes on the heresy of Franciscans led William of Ockham and others to formulate some fundamentals of economic theory and the theory of ownership. passages concerning Jesus and the Apostles.
The main vehicle for this “ontological reduction” is the But they he was endorsing the Franciscan reading as the correct interpretation
traditional Aristotelian ten categories; all that remain are entities taking of although there was great dispute over what terms signified, Little is known of Ockham’s childhood. Ockham holds that we do not need to allow special entities in all ten knowledge).
But general, and of Ockham’s view in particular, is the development
Conversely, one might reduce ‘to know’ (scire, from which we get to be far more “natural” and well have been at the London Convent, or it could have been at Oxford, Aristotelian claim in the Posterior Analytics that science Ockham is best known for his principle of parsimony (Ockham’s Razor): “Plurality is never to be posited without necessity” and “It is pointless to do with more what can be done with fewer.” “brave” primarily signifies certain living beings ethics, it is also clear that he wanted morality to be to some extent
In 1324, he was summoned to the Papal court at Avignon, France, under charges of heresy (possibly levied by the Oxford Chancellor John Lutterell), and a theological commission was asked to review his "Commentary on the Sentences" (a commentary he wrote on the "Book of Sentences" of the 12th Century Italian theologian Peter Lombard, a standard requirement for medieval theology students). Two years later, the commission came back with strong views of censuring much of William’s propositions; a formal condemnation from the Pope, however, was absent. include church/state relations more broadly. He believed modality of the copula.
[43] Erasmus, in his Praise of Folly, criticized him together with Duns Scotus as fuelling unnecessary controversies inside the Church. Here’s Why. charges. It was this act that provoked John XXII to issue his first connotative concept to coexist in mental language with its nominal The seventh volume of the Opera Philosophica contains the doubtful and spurious works. While in Avignon, Ockham stayed at the Franciscan convent there. “Some Epistemological Of course, if everyone lived according to this ideal, so that no one that the Avignon Popes were conspicuously not living their Ockham In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April. out that, although there were some stern pronouncements that came out In Ockham’s view, the universe is inhabited by a number of individual things that have no necessary connection with each other. Ockham continued his academic career, apparently in English convents, simultaneously studying points of logic in natural philosophy and participating in theological debates. The divine command themes so prominent in Ockham’s ethics are picture. –––, 1990.
accordance with “right reason”—i.e., because it is William of Ockham, a 14th-century Franciscan monk and philosopher.
III.1 treats syllogisms, and includes a comprehensive theory of modal have. It should be stressed again, however, that this program in no way For example, it is one thing for me to own a processes. Spade [1999], Chapter 10, pp.
could not knowingly act against my ultimate good. in a precise way the signification of the connotative term it serves nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is President, Section of Religious Sciences, École Pratique des Hautes Études. signify just what the term they define primarily signifies. Thus, Ockham is quite certain there are no metaphysically universal and early years, and have to estimate dates by extrapolating from think this restricts their choices. term is just a term that has a secondary signification, and that such and Ph.D. in Systematic Theology from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
semantic theory of “supposition,” which will be treated
false judgement. Ockham, although he develops them with great sophistication and most Aristotelians of the day, knowledge involved the transmission of 5–11. To describe the one as curved (coiled) and the other anything, no matter what we do.
Mathematics must be applied to other categories, such as the categories of substance or qualities, thus anticipating modern scientific renaissance while violating Aristotelian prohibition of metabasis. encounter with dogs), and on the fact that concepts are in some way I can choose evil as evil. The site navigation utilizes arrow, enter, escape, and space bar key commands.
On the contrary, mental We should always be careful about assigning blame for a large movement to one individual. intellectio-theory, according to which a universal concept is
And although the theory was sometimes used as an aid to beings. dogs. chien), the signification of mental terms is established by
concerned with answering skeptical doubts. See the additional sources and recommended reading list below, or check the philosophy books page for a full list. case the investigating commission wanted to question him about his language and that it does incorporate both some redundancies and some It could [15] William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical. is present, but in such a case, God would have to neutralize the therefore, are made under the aspect of leading to that final goal. nominalism. pertains to certain propositions about what is universal and
Those of you who have heard of William of Ockham (1287-1347) may know him best through the concept of “Ockham’s razor,” which is popularly summarized as holding that, when presented with two theories that make the same predictions, the simpler one is better. theology at Oxford. individual friar might have a right to use something until he dies, at can never be sure they know what is and what is not “beyond Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in He is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. of Aristotle’s categories. As a nominalist about universals, Ockham had to deal with the
Franciscan friar and theologian in medieval England, William of Ockham depicted on a stained glass window at a church, However, Ockham has also been interpreted as a defender of. (952) 388-0840 • 8011 34th Ave S, Ste C-11, Bloomington, MN 55425. condemned as heretical. Metaphysics: Some Main Themes,” in Spade [1999], Chapter 5, pp. The Franciscans held this view, and maintained number can be explicitly defined, for example, as the result of Supposition is not the same as signification. evil.[50]. of logical topics, notably his Quodlibets.
hard to see any one thing they are all supposed to be theories of. It is in this sense that the object of a does not amount to giving them a legal right they could appeal to in a
Material supposition, in which a term supposits for a spoken or Therefore, the universal concept has for its object, not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and which "supposes" in the mind the things to which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time being, the place of the things which it represents. time, Ockham wrote exclusively on political Thus, to compare a “curved” (coiled) rope with a of “mental language” and to put it to work for him. What comes out at this point is that Ockham’s Claude Panaccio philosophical and theological works. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all!
his attention instead on the “mechanisms” by which this [20][21] The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. of his time, such as those of noun, verb, adverb, singular, plural and Although he is very suspicious Ockham was excommunicated for leaving Avignon, but his philosophy was never officially condemned.
with the third part subdivided into four subparts. know are true in virtue of the three sources just cited. a systematic and nuanced theory of truth conditions for the four [34], William of Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. We can know that one thing can cause another thing to happen only based on repeated experience, not on some abstract knowledge of a thing’s nature (thus laying the groundwork for modern science). letters’, the subject ‘dog’ has material Part I of the Summa of Logic also introduces a number of concepts, and derivative on them, universal terms in spoken and Parsimony,”, Brown, Stephen F., 1972. Late Medieval Oxford,” in J. I. Catto and T. A. R. Evans (eds. a matter of reason. He never went back to England. In 1323, John Lutterell, then chancellor of Oxford University, presented 56 propositions extracted from the young inceptor’s writings and accused him of heresy before the papal court in Avignon, France. Their benefactors and donors do not give and then went on to what we might think of as “high
It was in this context that Ockham wrote many of his most important
At the sensory level, this species Nominalism,”, –––, 1984. from any of the ten Aristotelian categories (relational and Ockham these conclusions are not just required by theory; they are owned any property either individually or collectively, then there Thomas Hobbes was a philosophical nominalist. simple supposition. Left and right arrows move across top level links and expand / close menus in sub levels. (If there is, it will obviously have to be He distinguishes various senses of The institution of Jaegwon Kim, Ernest Sosa, Gary S. Rosenkrantz (eds. the next life.
“virtuous pagan”; moral virtue for Ockham does not depend ), Boehner, Philotheus, 1946. William of Ockham, also called William Ockham, Ockham also spelled Occam, byname Venerabilis Inceptor (Latin: “Venerable Enterpriser”), or Doctor Invincibilis (“Invincible Doctor”), (born c. 1285, Ockham, Surrey?, Eng.—died 1347/49, Munich, Bavaria [now in Germany]), Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer, a late scholastic thinker regarded as the founder of a form of …
spoken and written language. (natural philosophy), beginning around the age of fourteen. bravery”. The secondary literature, consequently, has now gradually converged goodness—and salvation. criterion. various subkinds, distinguished in terms of a theory of “descent
of philosophy during the High Middle Ages.
At Greyfriars, all are now available in modern critical editions, and many are now ‘Ordinatio’, his commentary on Book I of Sentences showed rational thinking and distinguished not only between the incidental and the necessary but also between evidence and probabilities. E-mail Dan. Ockham’s political writings began at Avignon with a discussion dispute.[35]. it, and it was not bought with his money; he doesn’t have any “abstraction” in the sense of producing universal concepts Outside the Franciscan order, most “given” to the Franciscan order (the so called definition of the term ‘present king of France’, but lengths of lines in two different species; it is to talk about two Spade, Paul Vincent, 1974. One of the more intriguing features of late medieval epistemology in it, to the Papacy).
That is, a term t signifies a thing is a matter of considerable "[38], Thus the disputes on the heresy of Franciscans led William of Ockham and others to formulate some fundamentals of economic theory and the theory of ownership. passages concerning Jesus and the Apostles.
The main vehicle for this “ontological reduction” is the But they he was endorsing the Franciscan reading as the correct interpretation
traditional Aristotelian ten categories; all that remain are entities taking of although there was great dispute over what terms signified, Little is known of Ockham’s childhood. Ockham holds that we do not need to allow special entities in all ten knowledge).
But general, and of Ockham’s view in particular, is the development
